Category English Language

How many questions do you ask on a given day? Do you always get the answers you need? What kinds of questions are successful in getting you answers? It is good to know the trick to ask the right questions in the right way. We ask questions for two main reasons. Can you guess what they are? Yes, to get information (why, what, who, where, when, how) and to confirm a statement (yes or no).

Our first task is to form a sentence that asks a question. “We play football every evening” is not a question. A statement has to be converted into a question (or an interrogative) sentence. To do that, we change the word order.

1. We put a question word in the beginning start with what/why/who/which/when/how and complete the sentence. In the end we place a question mark(?). Who is the Prime Minister of India?
2. We put a helping verb (is, were, has, have, did) in the beginning, complete the sentence and place a question mark. Have you read the book of Human Bondage?

How can we ask questions?

We can ask questions in different ways, depending on what we want to know. Let’s first see the 5Wh + 1H questions.

5Wh + 1H questions

These are the most common. All quiz programmes have these questions.

Read these examples. (Find the answers!)

1. Who was the greatest king of India?
2. When was the last time India won a gold medal in the Olympics?
3. Where can you find the highest mountain ranges?
4. What is the national song popularized by A.R. Rahman?
5. Why does the sun rise in the east?
6. How do animals in the water breathe?

5Wh +1H questions can be further divided into Interrogative pronouns, Interrogative adjectives and Interrogative adverbs.

1. Wh Interrogative pronouns [The question words are pronouns]

• What is your favourite game?
• Which is known as the ‘Manchester of the South? (Coimbatore)
• Whose is this pencil box?
• Who threw rubbish in the classroom?
• Whom do you want to see?

2. Wh Interrogative adjectives [The question words are adjectives, followed by the nouns they qualify.]

• Which city is known for mangoes?
• Whose telephone number do you want?
• What language do the Nagas speak?

3. Wh Interrogative adverbs [The question words modify verbs.]

• When will you buy me a mobile phone?
• Where were you last night?
• Why did you leave the tap open?
• How did you fix your glasses?

Embedded questions

These questions start with an auxiliary verb and have a noun clause (answers the question What?) starting with a Wh/ H word. The following table will make it clear.

Auxiliary	Subject	Verb	Object	Noun clause
Can	you	tell	me	how it happened?
Could	you	please tell	us	where we can find a hotel?
Does	she	want	to know	why we went away?

The noun clause in these sentences is a question. It is embedded in another sentence.

Echo questions

You find these questions in speech alone. Here statements are made to sound like questions by raising the pitch in the voice in the end.

1. India has won the match?
2. I can eat the cake?
3. I can leave the classroom now?
4. You fell off the bicycle?

Yes/No Questions

Here the ‘be’ verb or the auxiliary verb begins the sentence.

1. Is she your friend?
2. Do you drink cola?
3. Has the bell gone?

Questions tags

These are short questions added to the end of the sentence to make sure the information is correct or to find out what the listener thinks about something.

Tips:

• If the statement is affirmative, the questions tag is negative. If the statement is negative, the tag is affirmative.
• The tense and the pronoun forms are the same in the statement and the tag.

 

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Has this happened to you.? You are listening to someone speaking and soon you lose the thread of what they are saying — because you are distracted by their grammatical errors, poor sentence construction, wrong method of splitting the sentence and repetition. Then you ask: “What was that person saying?” it is not difficult to speak without errors. “Errors in speaking” means your listeners will misunderstand you, or as in my case, will not pay attention to what you are saying. Faulty grammar and poor choice of words may lead your listener to think you are rude. Why do you have to say, “oh, no, that’s not what I meant!” Remember what Winston Churchill said: “All, men make mistakes, but only wise men learn from their mistakes.”

Here is a list of common conversation mistakes and the right way to speak those sentences:

Incorrect: My friend asked her that why she was late.

Right:  My friend, asked her why she was late.

Incorrect: You should immediately inform him our mistake.

Right: You should immediately inform him of our mistake.

Incorrect: I will exptain you the what happened.

Right: I will explain to you, what happened.

Incorrect: He gave a speech which received nationwide attention.

Right: He made a speech which received nationwide attention..

Incorrect: She decided to give the exam.

Right: She decided to take the exam. [A teacher gives an exam, while students take the exam.]

Incorrect: There is no other alternative.

Right: There is no alternative.

Incorrect: She has learnt the speech word by word.

Right: She has Learnt the speech word for word.

[The phrase “Word by word” means “one word at a time “Word for word” describes the relationship between two sets of words. Word for word shows accuracy while word by word is about the method you use to learn something.]

Incorrect: Kiran secured only passing marks in English.

Right: Kiran secured only pass marks in English.

Incorrect: Hardworking children have a thirst of knowledge.

Right: Hardworking children have a thirst for knowledge.

Incorrect: My daughter pays more attention to music than study.

Right: My daughter pays more attention to music than to study.

Incorrect: Please see a dictionary for knowing the meaning of this word.

Right: Please consult a dictionary to find out the meaning of this word.

Incorrect: she has read just two fifth of this book.

Right: She has just read two -fifths of this book.

Incorrect: Please open your book on page fifty-two.

Right: Please open your book at page fifty-two.

[When you are referring to a particular portion of any page, it means you are talking about the text or content on that page and so you should prefer “on the page”. For e.g. The answer is on page 15. But, when you say “at page”, it means you are referring to entire content on the page.]

Incorrect: My mother likes the poetries of Ramanand.

Right: My mother Likes the poetry of Ramanand.

Incorrect: I have written the answer paper with ink.

Right: I have written the answer paper in ink.

[When you, write with something, it indicates your medium of writing or a tool that you use for writing. For e.g. Pen, pencil, chalk, etc. But, when you write in something, it shows your style of writing or the way (method) in which you want your writing to appear – either in ink, in gel etc.

Incorrect: I want a red pen to write.

Right: I want a red pen to write with.

Incorrect: My mother wilt teach you reading and writing Hindi.

Right: My mother will teach you how to read and write Hindi

Incorrect: Can you please tell me the cost of this book?

Right: Can you please tell me the price of this book?

[We tend to use ‘cost’ and ‘price’ interchangeably. When you purchase an item, the amount of money that you pay to the seller is a price. But the amount of money or expenses the seller spends to manufacture and market that product is its cost.]

Incorrect: We decided to pass away our time in the Library.

Right: We decided to pass our time in the library.

Incorrect: I beg pardon from you.

Right: I beg your pardon.

Incorrect: Please shut up! I have lost my patience.

Right: Please shut up! I have Lost patience.

Incorrect: Can I know the name of your favourite teacher?

Right: May I know the name of your favourite teacher?

Incorrect: Tomorrow, the classes will begin at 11 a.m. in the morning.

Right: Tomorrow, the classes will begin at 11 in the morning.

Incorrect: What is your good name?

Right: May I know your name?

Incorrect: The examination is approaching near and the syllabus is not yet completed.

Right: The examination is approaching and the syllabus is not yet completed.

Incorrect: Ask him to sit besides me while filling the admission form .

Right: Ask him to sit beside me while filling the admission form.

Incorrect: My neighbours son is in boarding.

Right: My neighbour’s son is in the boarding school.

Incorrect: The village girls go to school by foot.

Right: The village girls go to school on foot.

Incorrect: No Less than ten students were injured in the accident.

Right: No fewer than ten students were injured in the accident.

 

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The biggest hurdle when you write is the starting point the first line. We have seen, innumerable pictures of crumpled paper around the spot where people wrote by hand or using a typewriter. Today we simply stare at the blank screen on the PC or a laptop or the mobile notebook. Oh, how do I start my letter, story, novel, poem, class essay?

Yes, the starting line is crucial. Cross it with confidence, with aplomb, with a beautiful sentence. It can be a quote, a statistic, a proverb or just a thought. it can contain a mystery or say something unbelievable. it Can provoke, or make a critical remark about something we all Love. It can be bold, soft, loud, gentle or harsh. Or a study of contrasts as in the famous first sentence by Charles Dickens in “A Tale of Two Cities.” Here it is:

“It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of Light, it was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair, we had everything before us, we had nothing before us, we were all going direct to Heaven, we were all going direct the other way -in short, the period was so far like the present period, that some of its noisiest authorities insisted on its being received, for good or for evil, in the superlative degree of comparison only” How is it for an opening sentence? Gripping, isn’t it?

Here is the opening line from George Orwell’s “1984”: “It was a bright, cold day and, the docks were striking thirteen.” You do want to read the rest of the book, right? Or this. “Mr. and Mrs. Dursley, of number four, Privet Drive were proud to say that they were perfectly normal, thank you very much.”

You know who wrote this, right?

Whatever it may be, make sure that kindles the readers interest. Make it compelling. It should, hook the readers and funnel their curiosity. Great writers have always given a lot of thought to how they kick-start their story/novel. Authors have admitted that they draft and re-draft that first line to make it perfect. Good, writers know the worth, of the time spent on crafting the “flag-off’ sentence. Take your time, mull over it, write and read it a few times till you get it perfect.

 

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How do we write a descriptive essay, asked the students? Here are some pointers. First, think of the “Why?” What will your essay tell your readers? Your descriptive essay should create a verbal, picture of the thing/place/event/feeling you wish to write about. It should get your reader engaged, in the sight, sound, touch, taste and, smell of the place/event you describe. Your essay is a success if you can get your reader to visualise your words of description. You need to show – not tell the reader the beauty of your subject by illustrating it.

Be sure of the topic.

If the question paper says, “Describe a place you, visited,” make your decision. Which place will this be? Take one (it is “place”, not “places”) and recall everything you noticed while you were there. What did it took like? How big was it? What was remarkable about the place? What were the people like? The shops? Monuments? What experiences in the place left a deep impression on you?

Form an introductory paragraph.

Start with a bit of drama. Create a scene that will hook your reader at once. It can be something like, “My encounter with the city turned out to be a tourist’s nightmare.” Tell the reader what happened and then go on to say how you warmed up to the place.

If you are writing about a person, put in some drama the way you met him/her. Or describe an incident in his/her life that impressed you. See that the introductory paragraph sets the tone for the rest of the essay. Tell the reader what the subject of the essay is dearly.

Create a roadmap

The next step is to write a thesis statement. This is a single idea that will dominate the essay. Writing a thesis statement helps to focus your thoughts on the topic. It emphasises the purpose of the essay and streamlines the way the information conveyed to the readers. The thesis statement forms the roadmap of the essay. It could be something like, ‘This popular seaside city attracts millions of visitors all year; I wondered what it would offer me by way of memories.”

Get to work!

One way to write the description is to follow the spatial order. Write what you see to your right, left, in front. What can you see above? “From where I sat, I could see the spire of the church to my right and a row of pretty houses to the left.”

Idea 2: Draw five labelled columns on a sheet of paper, each one headlined by one of the five senses – the taste, sight, touch, smell and sound of your topic. Write the feelings you associate with the topic in the appropriate column. These sensory details wilt help you with material to fill up the essay. Make your description”spicy” and interesting. “I walked following the heady aroma of strong coffee and reached a small chocolate shop that had a bubbling outdoor chocolate fountain.”

When to start:

Once you have the information, start to write. See that all your sentences support the main thesis statement. You write just one essay at a time. So do not deviate from the topic. Flesh out your paragraphs with interesting (and funny!) descriptions. “Where is the coffee smell from , I wondered, till I realised the fountain was pouring out coffee-scented chocolate. This is a coffee chocolate city!”

Set your paragraphs.

Let each paragraph describe one aspect of the city. You can start with a brief history, and go on with the different sensations that you experienced, in the following paragraphs. Use the standard five-paragraph format. Use the Compare-contrast tool in your description. Which place did this city remind you of? How can it be compared to the city that you come from? Mix long and short sentences judiciously.

Conclude with a flourish.

“Cannot believe a week has passed, since I set foot here!” “It is already time to leave!” Them make a brief summary of what you, have written so far. XYZ is a city of clean beaches, wonderful promenades, historical monuments, calm and serene by lanes, houses with window-boxes of flowers…” Remember, what people read last is what they remember most!

Wrap it up!

See if your essay meets the requirements of the word limit. If it is too short, add your feelings about the object. Write a “clincher” sentence. “As I board the flight out of this city, what souvenirs do I carry with me? Sure, some were bought at shops. But the ones that will stay with me are the memories of the wonderful hospitality of the people, the Lovely beach, the food and the quaint atmosphere that is so welcoming. I know I will come back here.”

If it overshoots the word-Limit cut out the clichés — phrases that mean nothing, like “as you know”, “I think”, “I feel”, “as mentioned before”. Write direct sentences; avoid the passive voice. React, the essay carefully. Check for any grammar, punctuation or spelling errors. Turning in the essay with mistakes shows carelessness and lack of pride in your work. If you find sentences that are not particularly descriptive, rewrite them before proofreading. React the essay aloud to see if the sentences flow naturally. Reacting it to a friend or a helpful relative will also help.

 

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There is no way you can escape talk about climate change today. And a lot is written about it – its definition, reasons for it, how it affects us, remedial action. Every time I read about climate change I find new words and phrases related to it. As someone put it. “The Language surrounding climate change is changing right alongside the climate itself.” How many of the words and phrases mentioned in this article you, are familiar with?

Climate change:

The phrase “climate change” began Life as “global Warming.” It began to be used in the 1950s and was explained, as: “a long-term rise in Earth’s average atmospheric temperature.” In 1896, Swedish, scientist Svante Arrhenius declared that global warming existed and the reason was human behaviour. However, writers and speakers found the term, “global warming” confusing. Would the Earth just continue to get warmer and warmer and eventually have no winter at all? Scientists and, science writers needed a term that described the phenomenon in a better way. So they chose the term “climate change.”

Greenhouse effect:

This term began to be used in 1975. It came from theory that greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, water vapour and methane led to atmospheric heating. This let the sun’s energy through to the ground but impeded the passage of energy from the earth, back into space. This “greenhouse effect’ contributed, to global warming. The phenomenon, similar to how heat is trapped, inside ct greenhouse, was first explained by Joseph Fourier in 1827.

Global Warming:

The term “global warming” was recognised, and used widely in the late 1980s, after NASA scientist James Hansen told the U.S. parliament that there was clear cause-and effect relationship between greenhouse gases and global warming. In 2006, when former Vice-President Al Gore released the documentary An Inconvenient Truth in which he talks about carbon emissions, the phrase “global warming” got a big boost.

Polar Vortex:

The term polar vortex has been used widely across the world since 2014. The term came into existence to describe weather that brought extremely cold temperatures to parts of North America and Europe. The vortex is “a mass of swirling cold air that naturally exists at the Earth’s poles,” and in the Northern Hemisphere, during winter, the vortex expands, sending blasts of Arctic air to Canada and the U.S. This causes wild weather events described as “polar vortex.”

Green New Deal:

In February 2019, Senator Ed Markey and Representative Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez of the U.S. Congress (parliament) introduced, the Green New Deal (GND), a plan to fight climate change. The plan asked for investments in clean-energy jobs and, infrastructure, with the aim of “decarbonizing” the economy by shifting away from fossil fuels. The plan, is modelled on former President Franklin Delano Roosevelt’s New Deal in the 1930s. The word, “Green” was added to show that the plan was “environmentally sound, or beneficial.”

Microplastics:

This term, alarms naturalists and, environmentalists, and should alarm us too. Plastic reaches oceans and waterways, and then degrades into smaller pieces. Plastic pieces that are less than five millimetres in length have been called microplastics since the 1990s. They are now actively polluting every patch of water on Earth. They have been found in the Arctic, in the fishes caught across the globe and in human stool.

Single-use plastic

This term is a rage now, with governments thinking seriously of banning them. Single-use plastics are plastic items used once and they thrown away, like water bottles, straws and carry bags.

Ocean acidification:

Scientists believe that along with the landmass and the atmosphere, the oceans are also getting warmer. This causes ocean acidification. It means the ocean is becoming more acidic, and, the ocean floor is slowly being dissolved by the acid in the water. Scientists warn that something similar happened, during the Permian-Triassic period, leading to over 90% of marine species becoming extinct.

Climate refugees:

A refugee is “someone who is forced, to flee for their own safety, especially to a foreign country.” Since 2008 more than 24 million people have been displaced by extreme weather. Droughts, floods, deadly storms and heavy snowfall have driven people out of their homes to temporary shelters. These are the climate refuges. The term “climate refugees” was first coined in the year 1995.

Negawatt:

“Negawatt A negavvcitt is “a unit of energy that is saved by conserving energy.” The term derives from, “megawatt” unit of measuring electricity. Negawatt is the opposite of megawatt – “nega” is short for “negative.” The term has been around since 1984. Scientists give us proof to show that creating energy-saving technologies may be even more beneficial than trying to find alternative energy sources. Efforts Like the Green New Deal tell us to use energy carefully, reduce energy spending and get negawatts. So the term “negawatts” is being used often. Solastalgia

Climate change isn’t just having a disastrous effect on our environment. It’s also having an effect on our mental health and well-being. Environmental change can cause real distress and anxiety. People are traumatised by sudden floods, storms and severe drought. Wildfires triggered by climate change disrupt people’s Livelihoods and Iifestyles. In the early 2000s, environmental philosopher Glenn Albrecht named, this environmental distress solastalgia. In a 2007 report of drought and coal-mining in Australia, Albrecht wrote that “people exposed to environmental change experienced negative affect that is exacerbated by a sense of powerlessness or Lack of control, over the unfolding change process.” The word “Solastalgia” combines the Latin solacium, (“comfort, solace”) with the Greek algos, “pain.”

Use these words when you speak and write. Knowing the right words to discuss the sorry state of our environment and the reasons for the degradation will help to find ways to solve problems. Language is a powerful tool to express our anxiety. It helps to start discussions on what we need to do collectively to reverse the damage caused by climate change.

 

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It is not always easy to ask questions in class. You may have a doubt, and you may even have a teacher who encourages student participation in class, and yet, getting your voice heard amidst 40-60 children needs strategy. You can scream your head off to be heard, but that may invite punishment.

A better option would be to tweak the way you ask questions and pose them in a dear voice. And of course, be patient and wait for the right moment.

Here are some strategies:

After an absence

When you’re absent from class and you return the next day, you naturally want to know if you missed anything. I have heard students says, “I was absent yesterday, can I have the quiz paper now?” This is rude. Others ask: “Did I miss anything yesterday?” That’s a strange question, because those who are absent certainly miss lessons. Will the class do nothing just because some were absent?

So try this: “What did I miss yesterday when I was absent?” You’ll get a much better response.

Before a test

When you ask, “Is this included for the test?” you actually mean, “Should I be paying attention to this?” The answer is simple: “Yes, pay attention.” So, do not ask this question.

For real uses

There are teachers who take a tot of interest in what students learn and step outside the text to bring in other relevant facts. Some students say, “When am I ever going to use this?” That sounds rude and seems to question the teachers good intention.

So, change your words to ask, “Could, you give me a real-world example of how this information can be used?” That’s what the teacher wants to hear and you’ll get a much better response to future questions.

To be excused,

If you have to leave the classroom in the middle of a lesson, it is not a good idea to say, “I am going to the wash/rest room” Even the more polite “May I go to the wash/rest room?” is not quite the way to ask for permission. I have heard students launch into a complete explanation of why they have to leave. That is quite unnecessary.

Whenever you want to be excused, when in the company of people – whether its classmates, co-workers, bosses or relatives – say just that: “May be excused?”

Time it right

Wait for the right time to get the teacher’s attention. Most teachers give students a chance to ask questions and get their doubts cleared. So wait. If the teacher stops during the course of the lesson to let you ask questions, use that opportunity. If the teacher does not invite questions, wait for a pause before asking.

Be polite, get noticed

Raise your hand. This is the most common anal polite way of letting our teacher know that you have a question. It is a silent signal that you need clarification about something. It shows that you are willing to wait and not interrupt the lesson or disturb the class. You get noticed in a room full of students. Keep your hand up until your teacher acknowledges you.

Direct attention

If the teacher fails to notice your raised hand for more than five minutes, say. “Excuse me,” in a soft tone. That is bound to attract the attention of the teacher. Wait until you are called before you begin talking.

Always be polite. Repeating “Excuse me!” and talking over your teacher will make you look like you’re trying to disturb the class.

Make it short

Keep your question brief. Ask for specific information. Long-winded questions eat into the time the teacher has in class to complete her work. So stick to the point and, do not begin with an introduction. Avoid: “Ma’am you told us yesterday that…..” OR “My friend, and, I were discussing this lesson and…” OR “I was reading the questions at the end of the lesson…”

Make your question specific. Start with a question word: who, what, where, when, why, how.

Pay attention

Listen attentively to the answer. Do not look around the class when the teacher talking to you. Do not interrupt. If you want to remember the answer word-for-word, take notes after informing the teacher. Once you have the answer, thank the teacher. If you’re still having trouble grasping something, ask the teacher for clarification before you move on.

One at a time

Avoid, asking several, questions at the same time. The teacher may not remember all those questions. Also, she may not have time to answer all of them at once, especially if it’s near the end of the period. Also, other students may have questions of their own.

If you have several doubts, the best option is to approach the teacher after class or during recess. If your questions are related, ask them one by one.

 

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How to form

1. We use the imperative (or the command) form to give orders or directions in English. We can use the imperative form to advise and to warn. Adding the word “Please” makes the order polite. “Eat the vegetables!” “Switch off the fan and lights when you leave the room.” “Do not make noise.” “Complete your homework before going to bed.” “Do not speak with your mouth full of food.” “Turn left and go straight on.”
2. To make the imperative, use the infinitive of the verb (to go/ to come/ to walk/ to clean) without ‘to’: “Practise singing for at least an hour every day.” “Be careful.” “Please take a seat.”
3. To make a negative imperative, put “do not” or “don’t” before the verb. (Don’t is more informal than “do not”.) “Don’t go!” “Do not walk on the grass.”

Where to use orders

You often see the imperative form in instruction manuals or when someone tells you how to do something.

A recipe book is written in imperative sentences. There are often “sequencing” words to show the steps in the process. For example. “firstly”, “secondly”, “next” and “finally”.

You can also say “after that” instead of “then”, and “first”/ “second” instead of “firstly” and “secondly”.

Example: Simple instructions to plant a tree.

First, choose a healthy sapling.

Then choose a spot that doesn’t have too much shade.

Next, dig a hole measuring one foot by one foot – see that the hole is two-feet in depth.

After that, fill the hole nearly to the top with a layer of small gravel, sand, mud + compost – in that order.

Then gently place the sapling in the middle of the hole. And the, press the mud on the sides to ensure that the sapling stays finally in the spot.

Finally, spray water around the root gently with a water can.

Which verbs to choose

Verbs plays an important role while giving instructions. It is very important to choose the correct verbs when you give advice/ instructions/ directions. This helps to remove doubts and confusion in what you want to convey.

Examples:

Turn on /switch on… “First, turn on the computer.”

Turn off / switch off… “Turn off the lights when you leave.”

Take off / remove… “Take off / Remove your shoes before you enter the house.”

Take out… “Take the dirty clothes out of the box and put them in the washing machine.”

Attach / connect… “Connect the wires.”

Check / make sure… “Check that the pockets are empty before you put your jeans in the washing machine.”

Proceed / continue… “Continue to stir until the mixture is thick.”

Plug in… “Plug the modem in.”

Put back / replace… “Replace the lid after taking out the jam.”

How to improve the method

When you give instructions you can help the listener with extra information and advice.

Try adding the phrases given below in bold to make your instructions effective.

Remember to… wear garden gloves when you dig with a sharp implement.

Be careful not to… pour too much water.

Try not to… pull the sapling every day to see if it is glowing.

You need to… place a tree guard to protect the sapling.

It’s important to… see that the sapling gets adequate amounts of sunshine.

It helps to… take the advice of a gardener in the choice of the plant you want.

Be sure to… inform people around you that you have planted a sapling.

Always… choose a tree that grows strong roots.
Never… plant a coconut tree in a street.

Checklist for writing instructions

Keep in mind the following points

1. Use short sentences and short paragraphs.
2. Arrange your points in logical order.
3. Make your statements specific.
4. Use imperative sentences.
5. Put the most important item in each sentence at the beginning.
6. Say one thing in each sentence.
7. Choose your words carefully. Write in direct, simple words.
8. Read, follow your instructions to carry out the work (try out the recipe). Are your instructions working?

 

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Have you heard the phrase “any x, y, and z”as in“I don’t have to worry about every x, y or z?

We use these last three letters of the alphabet when we want to refer to some unknown people. Though these are merely letters, they stand for people. We use these three alphabets in maths, in algebraic equations. Where did they come from? How did they become important?

The origin of x

Some people think that the letter X is used to represent the unknown in both English and Mathematics because the letter has had to struggle to establish its identity. Interesting theory, right?

X is derived from the Phenician letter samekh, meaning “fish.” It was used by the Phoenicians to represent the /s/ consonant (denoting a hard S sound), the Greeks borrowed the samekh around 900 BC and named it Chi.

Once they became masters of the arts, the ancient Greeks set about to simplify the digraph (“a pair of letters representing a single speech sound”) /ks/, which is used most prominently throughout the western regions of Greece. So the X was born.

The Romans later adopted the X sound from the Chalcidian alphabet, a non-ionic Greek alphabet. They borrowed the Chi symbol, consisting of two diagonally crossed strokes, from the Greek alphabet to denote the letter. This symbol also represents the Roman numeral X or “10”.

In other words, the Romans took the /x/ sound from one alphabet (Chalcidian) and combined it with the Chi symbol from another alphabet (Greek) and thus X was born.

The X has been around for ages and has had different stories and sounds associated with it. It can mean Christ, like the X in Xmas, stand for a chromosome, and even show up in friendly letter writing (XOXO).

How to say x

In its pronunciation, the letter X has been compared to a chameleon. For example, X is used to establish the /ks/ sound (called “voiceless velar fricative”), as in wax and fox. To get this sound, you place the back of the tongue at the soft palate. You do the same for X’s/ gz/ sound, as in auxiliary and exhaust. X can also take on the /z/ sound as in xylophone and Xanadu, the hard /k/ sound as in excite, and /kzh/ as in luxury. The X can also be silent as in Sioux (Falls), and the French loan-word faux.

The origin of y

Y came in late to join the English alphabet. It was called ipsilon in German, upsilon in Greek, but we do not clearly know what it was called in English. The Y sound as in yard, yes, yield is from Old English words with initial g- as in got and y- as in yet, which were considered the same sound. These were written as 3, known as yogh. The system was altered by French scribes, who continued with the way Europe used –g- and from the early 1200 s used –y- and sometimes –gh- to replace3.

This is how it was formed.

Y started its journey in Classical Greek as –ik (os) and went to Classical Latin –ic (us). In Old English, it was recognised as –ig and in Middle English it became –y.

Y, as you know, is used to make adjectives from nouns. Example: Snow – snowy. Having, full of, or characterized by: dirty, healthy rather, somewhat: yellowy, chilly, dusky inclined or tending to: drowsy, sticky suggestive of, somewhat like: wavy fit or suitable for: Christmassy quality or condition: jealousy, zoanthropy a shop or goods of a (specified) kind: coopery a collective body of a (specified)kind: soldiery It is there for terms of endearment – for “little dear.” [kitty, Billy, daddy]

The origin of Z

Z’s history includes a time when it was used so rarely that it was removed from the alphabet altogether.

Where did Z come from?

The Greek zeta is the origin of the letter Z. The Phoenician glyph zayin, meaning “weapon,” had a long vertical line capped at both ends with shorter horizontal lines and modern capital I.

Then it evolved into the Greek zeta. The top and bottom lines became elongated, and the vertical line got slanted, connecting to the horizontal lines at the top right and the bottom left. It finally looked like what we call Z today.

Why did Z get removed from the alphabet?

Around 300 BC, the Roman Censor Officer Appius Claudius Caeus removed Z from the alphabet. He pronounced the letter Z as archaic (old-fashioned.) He said the pronunciation of /z/ had became /r/ by a process called rhotacism, rendering the letter Z useless.

How did Z get added back?

Two hundred years after Appius Claudius Caecus threw the letter Z out, Z was reintroduced to the Latin alphabet. At the time, it was used only in words taken from Greek. Because of its absence and reintroduction, zeta is one of the only two letters to enter the Latin alphabet directly from Greek and not Etruscan.

Z was not always the final letter of the modern English alphabet, although it has always been in the 26th position. For years the & symbol (now known as the ampersand) was placed at the end, When pronounced “and.” When people recited the alphabet, Z was said with the Latin “per se,” meaning “by itself.” The position and pronunciation eventually got clubbed together: “X, Y, Z, and per se and” became “X, Y, Z, and ampersand.”

These days Z is the least used letter in the alphabet, though American English uses it more often than British English. Early English did not have a Z but used s for both voiced and unvoiced soft consonant sounds (sibilants). Words in English that originated as loan words from French and Latin are more likely to be spelled with a Z than an S, such as blazon or buzzard. Also, American standardization modified /z/ suffixes to more accurately reflect their pronunciation, changing –ise and –isation to –ize and -ization.

 

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Once in my twelfth standard class, I watched students cry when I read the poem “Home they brought the warrior dead,” I am sure you giggled, yawned, listened with rapt attention, dreamed or clapped in the end – while listening to poem being read to you. Was that the power of the words? Was it the way it was read? Both?

Many things contribute to the “enjoyment” of poetry. Sometimes it is the depth of the thought. Sometimes it is the impression the words leave with you.

Sometimes it is because it is the kind of poem you like. Sometimes it is the way the words are arranged, the imagery you get. It is also possible that you are not impressed at all! But you try to understand the poem, see how you feel about the thoughts expressed. You are expected to “react” to a poem, not analyse it. If you are not sure about the poem’s meaning and the poet’s intent, you read it again and again till you are able to assess your feelings towards what the poet says.

Keep these in mind, when you start reading a poem.

[1] The title: Sure, a poem’s title may not always be of significance. It may not appeal to you. But some certainly draw you to explore the contents. Examples: Paradise Lost, Do Not Go Gentle Into The Night, The Road Not Taken. It is true that sometimes the title does not say much (The Snow Man by William Blake), but most reveal a hint. Read on, and then ask yourself; Does the title reflect the true meaning of the poem?

[2] Words/Phrases: Ask: Why has the poet chosen this word/phrase? Why did Wordsworth write”Ten thousand saw I” not “Ten thousand I saw”? Why are some words repeated (Of the bells, Of the bells, bells, bells, bells, bells, bells, bell by Edgar Allan Poe)? Which word/phrase stands out? (“Men may come….forever” – The Brook by Tennyson.) Is there a word/phrase that has more than one meaning? Are there words which convey opposite thoughts (“Darkness visible” – John Milton, Paradise Lost)?

[3] Style/Diction: Is the poem in an elaborate style, with a lot of descriptive lines? Is it a simple or a dense one in meaning? Is it formal, conversational, abstract, descriptive? How would you describe the language and vocabulary (register): informal, formal, common, casual, neutral, mixed?

[4] Tone: What seems to be attitude of the poet towards his audience? Does he speak directly (‘Tell me not, in mournful numbers”)? What is his attitude towards the subject of the poem? Is the tone serious, ironic, argumentative, somebre, abrupt, playful, cheerful, sad, or a mix of one or more of these? Does it keep changing? Is it clear/unclear?

[5] Word Order: What is special about the way the words are arranges? What effect does it bring? How is “Her arms across her chest she laid” different from “She laid her arms across chest”? Are the lines made of long sentences or fragmented phrases? Does it jump around before flowing smoothly?

[6] Punctuation: Punctuation in poems is often different from the punctuation in prose. Poems are made of lines and not sentences, so they stop abruptly, have dashes or commas to mark the end of a line. Punctuation is often used to create rhythm. Sometimes the lines stop without punctuation and the thought continues in the next line. So check out: Is the punctuation unusual? Does it add to the beauty of the poem?

[7] Figures of speech: Poets use figurative language to present their ideas in condensed form. There are similes and metaphors, alliteration, repetition, personification and onomatopoeia. Most of all, there is imagery – word pictures that bring the description alive. Here is an example from the poem “Egret Rising.”

Like a phoenix rising not from flames but watery reeds,

The egret flapped its wings and gracefully rose up from the weeds.

The flash of white feathers shone against green leaves and clear blue sky,

The majestic bird set a course unknown and swiftly away did fly.

So, look for exaggeration (hyberbole: “Ten thousand saw I at a glance”), metaphors and unusual construction of lines.

Hope is the thing with feathers –

That perches in the soul –

And sings the tune without the words –

And never stops at all –

From Hpoe Is The Thing With Feathers by Emily Dickinson

[8] Rhythm and Meter: The first poems you read had a regular beat and a rhyme scheme. This was to help you memories the poem. Remember “Twinkle, twinkle little star?” Poems are musical. So look for the rhythmic patterns.

“Tyger! Tyger! Burning bright

In the forests of the night

What immortal hand or eye Could frame thy fearful symmetry?”

Read the poem aloud, and the beat becomes very clear.

[9] Speaker/Narrator: Who is the speaker? Is he talking to the reader?  Is he a narrator telling a story? [Read The Highwayman by Alfred Noyes.] Ask: What is happening in the poem? Is is action? Drama? Who tells the story of The Ancient Mariner by Coleridge?

[10] Time/ Setting: These are important to understand in a narrative poem. What was the World understand in a narrative poem. What was the world like when the poet wrote these lines? Is a sense of place clear (urban, pastoral, forest, desert, beach, etc.), or does the poem seem to occupy an abstract time and place (such as mental or emotional state)?

 

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