Category Lost Civilizations

               Like the Romans, the Incas had an amazing ability to build roads and fortresses. They had a well defined state structure, and division of labour. Legend has it that Manco Capac; the first Inca ruler was the son of the creator God Viracocha. He came to Earth on a sun island in Lake Titicaca. The ruler known as the Sapa Inca was carried in a sedan chair. The taxes were paid by the peasants.

               The Incas counted by putting knots on strings. Knotted strings were known as quipu. The Incas buried gold in their tombs. 

               The Indus Valley Civilization was the largest of the ancient civilizations. As the name suggests, the civilization bloomed on the banks of the Indus River and its tributaries. It included most of present day Pakistan, and extended up to the Indian states of Gujarat, Rajasthan, Haryana and Punjab.

               This civilization was amazingly advanced. The cities were defended by walls and forts. Trade flourished. The civilization mastered the craft of making copper, bronze, lead and tin. They had a highly developed sense of hygiene. Mohenjo-Daro alone had over 600 wells and sewers. They even had a language of symbols called the Indus Valley script. This civilization began around 2600 BC, and died out by 1900 BC. According to some historians, Indus Valley Civilization is called as Dravidian because of language and culture. 

                Did you know that some of the cities of the Indus Valley had between 35000 and 40000 people living in them? A vast number of settlements were built on the banks of the Indus River and surrounding areas. These settlements cover a remarkable region, almost 1.3 million square kilometres of land. The most important cities were Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro, Chanhudaro, Kalibangan, Banawali, Lothal, Dholavira, Sutkagendor, and Surkotada.

                These cities were well planned, and solidly built of brick and stone. They had drainage systems, water storage systems, as well as systems for weights and trade. The people were craftsmen, traders, soldiers, and administrators. The city people got their grain and food from the villages. When the villages became too big, they needed a strong administration. They also began to produce excess grain, so that the people could devote themselves to other activities besides farming. This led to the growth of city civilizations. 

                    The Harappans knew how to write, and over 2,000 stone seals have been found in the Indus Valley. These seals were small tablets which left an impression when pressed into a soft substance like clay. They were quadrangular in shape. These seals are some form writing, but unfortunately they have not been deciphered yet. The Harappan writing consists of short strings of symbols. Some say that each symbol represents a picture or idea; others say it represents a sound. The fact, however, is that no one has actually been able to understand or read the writing of the Harappans. 

               The cities of Harappa were well planned, and even had covered drains. Large areas were built with bricks of the same size and weight. They used kilns to make bricks, and used burnt bricks in domestic and public buildings.

               The city streets were straight and broad. They were paved and laid at right angles to each other. The houses were protected against noise, odours, and thieves. Houses faced streets, and were at least two storeys high. They had brick staircases leading to the upper levels and the roof. Life was centred on an enclosed courtyard, and there was a balcony over the courtyard. Each house had its own well, and one even had a large bathtub! 

               The Harappan civilization finally declined between 2000 and 1800 BC. We cannot really pinpoint one single reason. Climate changes may have played a role, since the Earth was becoming warmer during this time. The land became drier, and water ran short for cultivation.

               It is also thought that earthquakes or fires may have destroyed many cities. The city of Mohenjo-Daro shows evidence of having been destroyed by fire. Other scholars feel that the population was wiped out by an epidemic or disease. It is also likely that the area became too large to be effectively controlled, encouraging attacks by outsiders. Some believe that the nomadic Aryans invaded India around 1500 BC, and destroyed the Indus Valley civilization, bringing to an end the most brilliant civilization of the ancient world. Many modern historians say the theories of Aryan invasion are a myth. 

               Yu the Great founded the first Chinese dynasty, Xia. They ruled in the lower reaches of the Yellow River between 2200 and 1570 BC. The dynasty is famous for its dam building and the working of bronze. The Shang dynasty succeeded the Xia. The city of Ao was its capital. The Shang was famous for silk weaving, agriculture, and the use of wheels with spokes. The basics of the Chinese language were developed in this period. They heated bones and turtle shells and read their future from the cracks that emerged!

               The Zhou overthrew the Shang. They distributed large landholdings to family members and supporters. Thus they divided people into landlords and peasants. Thereby they laid the foundations of the future feudal state. 

                Warlords and regional rulers rose during the period between 476 and 221 BC. They waged bitter wars. So, this period is known as the period of the warring states. Wandering thinkers and teachers of wisdom offered their services to the new lords. Hence, this period is also known as the ‘Period of the Hundred Schools of Thought’. Taoism arose at this time. The principles of Taoism are laid down in Tao Te Ching or The Book of the Way and the Power of the Way. Taoists lead a peaceful life in harmony with nature. Confucianism was the other major philosophy. Confucianism called for a virtuous life.

                Mohism and the Agriculture School too exercised some influence. Mohism, founded by Mo Di, preached universal love of mankind. The Agriculture School gave supreme importance to agriculture. They even asked the rulers to work in the fields! These new schools of thought were based on the ancient Chinese ideas of harmony. Ancient Chinese thinkers believed that all development was due to the interplay of the yin and the yang. The yin was the warm and active male force, while the yang was the cold and accepting female force. 

                    Qin Shih Huang di was the first emperor of China. King Zhen of the Qin state defeated the other six warring states quickly and cruelly. King Zhen took the name of Qin Shih Huang di, and became the first emperor of China. He ruled for 11 years, and achieved astonishing things.

                   He ruled with the aid of a powerful army and loyal officials. He laid down standards for writing, money, weights and measures, clothes, and even hairstyles. Hundreds of thousands of labourers were forcibly put to work, to control the flow of rivers and to lay 6800 kilometres of roads. He constructed the beginnings of the Great Wall of China, and his huge tomb. Qin Shih Huang di burned a large portion of the ancient philosophical writings.

               Rulers often rely on religion. The great Han emperor Wu-Di made Confucianism the state religion. He realized that Confucianism would foster Han rule. Kong Zi or Confucius who lived between 551 and 479 BC was the founder of Confucianism. Confucianism called for a life of virtue. Ren or humanity, yi or righteousness, li or ritual, zhi or knowledge and xin or integrity are the pillars of Confucianism. People were asked to be polite and respectful to one another. They were expected to serve their ruler. Emperor Wu-Di made knowledge of Confucianism compulsory for the civil services examination of his time.