Category Ancient World\’s Commanders

          Ivan’s death has been a point of controversy, as there are several versions, some of which assume that he died a natural death, while according to others, he was murdered.

        It is said that Ivan died while playing chess with one of his close associates. However, in the 1960’s, after Ivan’s tomb was opened and his remains exhumed, it was discovered that they contained high amounts of mercury which led to speculations that he was poisoned. Another theory is that, Ivan was strangled by one of his enemies.

           When Russia had a royal family, the emperor was called the Tsar. Tsars ruled Russia from 1547 to 1917. The first Russian ruler to use this title was Ivan IV, also known as Ivan the Terrible.

           Ivan the Terrible assumed the throne in 1547 at the age of seventeen. His reign was peppered with battles with foreign invaders, and by a rule of terror never before seen in Russian history. Ivan suspected conspiracies everywhere, and eventually announced he would abdicate because of the lack of loyalty around him. He was only willing to continue to rule if he could deal with alleged deserters at his discretion.

           His terms were accepted, and Ivan launched his reign of terror. He hired a large personal army, the Oprichniki, and all potential traitors were cruelly executed. People were impaled and mutilated, while whipping and torture were common. Ivan built a palace in Moscow, and the dungeons were supposedly full of prisoners, of which at least twenty were tortured to death everyday in front of the laughing Tsar. Thousands were hanged, drowned, or deported, while the buildings and countryside were plundered and destroyed.

           Despite his cruelty, Ivan improved Russia’s governmental administration, and contributed to the nation’s culture. Ivan was also a good writer, with a talent for biting sarcasm. He was eager to maintain political relations with Europe, and was a devout adherent of the Orthodox Church. Ivan alternated between periods of savagery and piety, often sending great memorial payments and treasures to monasteries- yet nothing could wipe out his reputation of being truly ‘terrible’! 

               In 1519, an explorer by the name of Hernan Cortes left his home in Cuba in order to explore Mexico. The major civilization in the region was that of the Aztecs, led by Montezuma II. Cortes and over 500 men arrived in Mexico, and began travelling towards the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan. It is thought that Cortes’s arrival coincided with an Aztec prophecy about a white-skinned god arriving from the east. So, at first, Montezuma welcomed Cortes and gave him lavish gifts. However, relations quickly deteriorated and, fearing an attack, Cortes took Montezuma hostage, demanding a huge ransom from his people.

                After Montezuma was killed during a revolt in Tenochtitlan, Cortes laid siege to the city, which fell after three-months. A new settlement, Mexico City, was built on the ruins, and settled with Spanish colonists, becoming the centre of Spanish America. Cortes secured control over Mexico, and in 1523, was named governor and captain general of New Spain.

               Francisco Pizarro was a Spanish soldier and explorer. Although he was born into a poor family, Pizarro settled in Panama City on the Pacific Coast, and became known as one of its most famous and richest citizens. However, rumours about a very wealthy Inca Empire were circulating at the time, and craving more wealth and excitement, Pizarro set out in 1524 in search of this empire. He traveled through much of the Pacific Coast of America along Peru, and after many years of failed attempts, Pizarro finally ‘discovered’ the Incan Empire.

         Pizarro conquered the Incas brutally and quickly, and stole immense hoards of gold, silver, and other treasures. He looted, and generally destroyed the Incan capital of Cusco, and then founded Lima, which is the capital of modern Peru.

          Francisco de Almeida was a soldier and explorer, who established his reputation as a brilliant commander in the wars against the Moors of Granada. He was made the first Portuguese Viceroy of India in March 1505 by the King, Manuel I. Instead of sailing directly to India, he spent a year sailing up the eastern coast of Africa, building forts, and conquering Arab trading towns along the way. This provided the ships which followed with safe ports and provisions on the long journey.

           On his arrival in India, he established his base at Cochin, and with his son Lourenzo, explored the Malabar Coast and the island of Sri Lanka. He fought Arab, Egyptian, and Indian united fleets at every opportunity. Almeida set sail for Portugal in 1509. While restocking at the Cape of Good Hope, in Table Bay, he died in a skirmish with the Hottentots, on March 1st, 1510. 

           Mehmed II was a sultan of the Ottoman Empire. He extended the empire from Southeastern Europe to the Danube and from Anatolia to the Euphrates River. However, he is most famous for his siege of Constantinople, and his victory over the Byzantine Emperor, Constantine.

            When, at the age of twenty-one, Mehmed II sat on the throne of the Ottoman sultans, his first thoughts turned to taking over the Byzantine capital of Constantinople. He began his attack by taking control of the Strait of Bosphorus so as to cut off Constantinople from the Black Sea. Working to improve Constantinople’s defences, the Byzantine Emperor Constantine ensured that the massive walls were repaired and strengthened. To prevent a naval attack, Constantine directed that a large chain be stretched across the mouth of the harbour to block Ottoman ships from entering.

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