Category Lost Civilizations

               The Celts were proud and honourable people, who colonized the whole of Central Europe including Britain, and spoke a different language. The study of the Celts is important because, they are hailed as the fathers of Europe, and their culture spread from Galicia in Spain, to Turkey. Many place names in Europe are derived from the Celtic inhabitants, and many of the roads once attributed to the Romans are now recognized as having been created by the Celts.

               The Celtic tribes lived in scattered villages. Most Celts lived in farming communities surrounded by a bank with wooden fencing and a ditch to keep out intruders and wild animals. The Celts lived in round houses with thatched roofs of straw or heather. Clothes were made from wool, and dyed with natural vegetable dyes. The Celts also loved to wear jewellery made from bronze, gold, tin, silver, coral and enamel. They ate whatever food they could grow or hunt.

               The Celts were great warriors. Many Celts went into battle unprotected by helmets or armour. They often fought naked – and it’s believed that women fought as well. They believed in many gods and goddesses, and priests called druids.

               In fact, there are still areas where the Celtic languages remain widely spoken and these include parts of the British Isles and Brittany in France.

 

                 Constantine was the first Christian Roman emperor. It is said that the night before a battle, he had a dream in which a cross appeared in the sky, and a voice proclaimed ‘Under this sign you will win’. So, he converted to Christianity and his rule saw many changes in the Roman Empire.

                 Constantine lived in the Eastern Empire, and chose Byzantium as his capital, which he renamed Constantinople. Byzantium was located in a perfect position to trade with the east and the west. Rather than send traded goods onto to Rome, Constantine kept most of the goods in his own half of the empire. Moreover, he built Constantinople with the money that he got from Rome. As a result, the western side of the empire became less and less important to the Eastern Roman Empire with its capital in Constantinople. Constantine’s conversion to Christianity also increased the Christian influence among the Romans. 

               Rome is built on seven hills. Ancient Rome was a huge, crowded city, with beautiful temples and public buildings. The rich had gracious homes, each with an entrance atrium, which was the centre of family life. For those who were not quite as rich, there were apartment buildings, while shabby tenements were for the poor.

               The Romans enjoyed going to the public baths, not just to bathe but for socializing. A Roman’s day might start off with a light breakfast. In the early afternoon, the Roman might take a quick trip to the baths. At around 3pm, they would have dinner which was as much of a social event. Some were carried in covered litters, with curtained couches carried on poles by slaves. Even for the poor, life in the city was lively. There was always something going on, like the many religious festivals with entertainment paid for by the rich, and chariot racing. These were free spectacles that all the people could enjoy. 

 

 

               During the era of the late Republic, Rome suffered through a reign of terror under the dictator Sulla. When he died, damage had been done to the republican system of government. Violence and uncertainty allowed a new political alliance to arise- that of the first triumvirate. Triumvirate means ‘three men’ and refers to a group of three men who hold political power, regardless of whether or not the trio has been elected. 

 

 

       

 

               The first triumvirate consisted of Julius Caesar, Pompey, and Marcus Licinius Crassus. They divided up the Roman provinces. Crassus, the capable financier, received Syria. Pompey, the renowned general, got Spain. Caesar, who would soon show he to be a skilled politician, took over Cisalpine and Transalpine Gaul and II – lyricum. The triumvirate fell apart in 53 BC, when a Parthian army attacked Rome and killed Crassus. Meanwhile, Caesar developed the Roman Empire. In a struggle for power with the Senate, Caesar emerged the winner.

               After Caesar’s death, the second triumvirate was established in 43 BC. It consisted of Octavian, Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, and Mark Antony. The second triumvirate ended when Antony became involved with Cleopatra-Egypt’s pharaoh- and decided to fight Rome. Octavian played a part in defeating Antony’s forces. Once Antony was out of the way, and Lepidus was forced to retire, Octavian was free to become Augustus Caesar.  

               For the first 200 years after it was founded, Rome was a kingdom, ruled by a succession of seven kings. The seventh king, Tarquinius was overthrown in 509 BC, and the Roman Republic was established.

                Under the Republic, two elected consuls led the government. The consul’s most important power was that they controlled the army. They were members of the Senate, which was composed of leaders from the noble families of Rome. Members of the Senate were chosen by the consuls. Once chosen, they served for life.

               There was also an Assembly composed of the common citizens of Rome. It had limited powers. It could vote for, or suggest laws, but the Senate could block their decisions. The Assembly could vote to declare war, but the Senate could override them. However, the Assembly had one power that was very impressive – it was the Assembly who voted each year on which two members of the Senate would serve as consuls. The Roman Republic followed a policy of expansion, and established many provinces. Each province was provided with manpower, taxes, food and other resources. 

 

             The founding of Rome goes back to the very early days of civilization. According to legend, Rome was founded by the twins, Romulus and Remus, who were the sons of the War God, Mars. An evil uncle took them as babies from their mother, and threw them into the River Tiber to drown. The boys were found by a she-wolf who fed and nurtured them. Then, a shepherd and his wife adopted the boys. Years later, Mars told his twin sons to build a city on the spot where they had been found. The city was Rome.

             Romulus and Remus both wanted to be the only king. They quarrelled, and in a fit of rage, Romulus picked up a rock, killed his brother, and made himself the sole ruler. This legend is one of the most famous in the history of the world. The city of Rome was later to become the heart of the Roman Empire.