Keshav Jain

The satellite has been designed to conduct a landmark survey of the world’s oceans, lakes, and rivers from space for the first time.

NASA, the U.S. space agency, recently launched a satellite called SWOT. What is its objective and how will it help us? Let’s find out.

Its mission

SWOT, short for the Surface Water and Ocean Topography satellite, was recently launched from California to make a comprehensive survey of the world’s oceans, rivers, and lakes from space for the very first time. Dubbed a “revolution in hydrology”, SWOT, an SUV-sized satellite flying at a height of 890 km, will offer an unprecedented, clear view of the water bodies, while tracking the rise in sea levels, as well as rivers, lakes, and reservoirs. The satellite is expected to offer key insights into how these bodies of water influence climate change and factors such as how much more heat and carbon dioxide oceans can absorb. Oceans are estimated to have absorbed more than 90% of the excess heat trapped in Earth’s atmosphere caused by human-induced greenhouse gas emissions. With climate change accelerating, some regions are experiencing extreme droughts. while others extreme floods, along with changing precipitation patterns. According to researchers, the observations of SWOT will improve our understanding of how water moves around Earth, its circular currents in oceans, etc. This will help predict floods in areas where there is too much water, and manage water in places that are prone to drought.

How will it work?

The global water survey satellite will measure the height of water in freshwater bodies and the ocean on more than 90% of Earth’s surface – which it will track at least once every 21 days. Researchers will be able to get data on millions of lakes, rather than the few thousands currently visible from space. The technology employed by SWOT is called KaRin, a Ka-band radar interferometer. The radar sends down a signal which is reflected back by the water surface. This echo is received by two antennas, resulting in two sets of data providing high accuracy for water detection and resolution. The data, compiled from the radar sweeps of the planet, will be used to bolster weather and climate forecasts and aid in managing scarce freshwater supplies in drought-stricken areas.

Who developed it?

The satellite is a billion-dollar project developed jointly by NASA and France’s space agency CNES, with contributions from the Canadian space agency and the U.K. space agency. It was carried onboard a spacex Falcon-9 rocket from the Vandenberg U.S. Space Force Base. SWOT will start collecting scientific data in about six months time after undergoing checks and calibrations. The satellite’s components were built primarily by NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory near Los Angeles and CNES.

According to SWOT’S project head at CNES, Thierry Lafon, the mission is meant to last for three-and-a-half years, but could be extended. The U.S. and French space agencies have worked together in the field for over three decades. An earlier satellite developed by the two agencies, TOPEX/Poseidon, improved understanding of ocean circulation and its effect on global climate. It also aided the forecast of the 1997-1998 El Nino weather phenomenon.

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Chocolate is popular globally and across age groups. No wonder it has its own day! World Chocolate Day is celebrated on July 7 every year to mark the day of its arrival in Europe way back in 1550. Let’s take a bite of chocolate’s history, its benefits, the flip side, and its social and ecological impact.

Born in the Americas

Every bar of chocolate made is bom from cacao trees whose seeds- cacao or cocoa beans-are a primary ingredient in its preparation. The origin story though takes us to the Americas.  To be specific, Mesoamerica,  spanning southern parts of North America and vot parts of Central America. Scientific evidence dates the use of cacao seeds to over 3,600 year ago by Maya Aztec, Olmec and other ancient civilisations of this region. Cacao was venerated as a gift from god and drinks made from it were used especially during rituals and as energuen and medicine. However, research from a few years ago suggests that the Mayo Chinchipe culture in present-day Ecuador of South America used cocoa beans a good 5.000 years ago-pushing back the date of first use of these seeds by about 1,500 years. While it is contested if Ecuador actually domesticated cacao or if that credit goes to the Maya people, an archaeobotanist settles the argument beautifully saying the Maya turned the consumption of cacao into an art form But back then it was consumed as a bitter beverage, tasting nothing like the solid chocolate we know today. And that transformation happened in Europe

Raised in Europe

Though theories abound on how exactly chocolate entered Europe, it appears to have occurred during the 16th Century and inexplicably tied to Spanish colonisation of the Americas Spanish conquistadors (conquerors) are believed to have brought it to Spain. From Spain, its popularity and demand spread to other parts of the continent, where notoriously slaves were used extensively in cocoa plantations. (By 17th and 18th Centuries, it was available in North America too.) For a few centuries, cocoa continued to be enjoyed as a beverage in Europe, enriched  with milk spices, and flavourings, and invariably among the wealthy.  Gradually, cocoa  reached  the masses, took a powder form-known as Dutch cocoa and easy to mix with water, and inevitably, the solid chocolate bar was born. Today, chocolates are available in every corner of the world and in several unimaginable forms and flavours.

Benefits

Many studies have been conducted globally to ascertain the benefits of chocolate consumption. Research shows that chocolate can help in brain function, especially in those aged 50 to 70. Dark chocolate consumption has been linked to lower risk of a heart attack. As cocoa helps increase the flow of blood around the brain, it seems to cut down the chances of a stroke too Apart from this, consuming a tiny chocolate square regularly is believed to help lower blood pressure and the chances of succumbing to cardiovascular diseases. Flavanols, substances found in cocoa, boost the body’s supply of nitric oxide to help lower blood pressure. Dark chocolate is said to bring down oxidative stress – which causes cell and tissue damage and improves platelet function. Among dark, milk, and white chocolate, studies appear PHOTO: PIXABAY to show that dark chocolate (with less sugar) fares better than the other two.

Perils

Since chocolates invariably contain sugar and saturated fat. Unchecked consumption can result in weight gain, putting individuals at risk for cardiovascular diseases. Other concems arising out of chocolate consumption include heartburn, cancer, allergies, and toxic and bacterial contamination during the processing (cacao by itself is not contaminated). Though studies show the benefits of consuming chocolate, recent reports suggest that many such studies could be funded by chocolate manufacturers and hence the findings could be exaggerated or selective in showcasing chocolates in a positive light.

Eco-social impact

While the word chocolate could conjure up happy visuals of this rich and delectable treat for s chocolate lover, its production belies a dark stony Cocoa plantations in West Africa, especially tong Coast and Ghana, are plagued by prevalance of widespread child labour employment, with poor or no wages, and hazardous working conditions. Many reports liken the situation to modern-day slaveny, making chocolates the result of unethical trade practices with little thought for human dignity. On the environmental front since the denund for chocolate is globally high tropical forests are destroyed to make way for cocoa plantations, decimating native wildlife. Not just that since chocolate production also involves ingredients such as milk, sugar, palm oil, etc.. the increased production of these items too affect the environment. As the use of chocolate has crossed, culinary territory to veer into cosmetics and pharmaceutical industries, the demand for it has never been higher Add to this the fairly recent allure of organic and single-origin (grown in a specific region) cacao, the pressure on our environment hasn’t been more severe

IT’S TRIVIA TIME!

A perfect name? The scientific name of the cacao tree is Theobroma cacao. Coined by Swedish botanist Carolus Linnaeus, it seems fitting because it translates to Drink of the gods, from the Greek words theos (god) and broma (beverage).
How versatile! Historic records show that chocolate was used as more than just a drink. It was used as money, face paint, a disguise for poison, and was even fought over!
Culinary experiments if you think chilli-flavoured chocolates are a recent (and fancy) invention, think again During festive times, the Aztecs seem to have had a variety of drinking chocolate, with a dash of maize, chilli, aniseed, and even flowers
Pods of pleasure Cocoa beans are encased in the fruit of the cacao tree. The fruit is in the form of a fleshy pod, and each pod contains a few dozen beans. The pulpy fruit or the seeds themselves apparently do not taste anything like chocolate. The seeds acquire this addictive flavour and smell only after they are dried and roasted
That’s a lot African countries Ivory Coast (Cote d’lvoire) and Ghana are among the largest producers of cocoa in the world, accounting for over 50% of the total global production

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Have you ever thought of living in underground homes? If not, we will soon have to, it looks like. Climate change air pollution, shrinking spaces and overcrowding may one day force us to burrow underground like moles! What is it like to live underground? Come, let’s find out from modern-day troglodytes.

From the time of the Neanderthals around 1.00.000 years ago, human beings have lived in caves. A cave is a hollow area in the earth that has formed naturally. It may consist of a single chamber that is not very far from the surface, or a network of passages and chambers that may descend deep under the ground and nun for many miles.

Troglodyte tales

A human cave-dweller is called a troglodyte Are there any modern-day troglodytes? Yes and they are found in a number of countries, ranging from Tunisia, Iran and China to Italy and Turkey!

In Tunisia’s  Matmata, located in the arid Djebel Dahar region, the Berbers have lived in underground homes for centuries. The houses protect them from the extreme desert cold and heat remaining cool in summer and cosy in winter. They are built by digging a deep circular pit in the soft sandstone. Then cave-like rooms are excavated around the edges of the pit. The main pit is a courtyard open to the sky.

In the 1960s, unexpectedly heavy downpours flooded the area, destroying or damaging the underground dwellings. The Tunisian government encouraged the Berbers to settle in towns and cities.

The houses became a tourist attraction after one of them featured as Luke Skywalkers home in a Star Wars film. Today, only a handful of families who are reluctant to move away from their land and homes, remain in Matmata.

Wherever people have constructed cave dwellings, whether it is Matmata, Iran’s Kandovan, Turkey’s Cappadocia, or Italy’s Matera, the landscape has lent itself to easy digging and excavation. Kandovan and Cappadocia both have caves hollowed out of volcanic ash and debris, while in Matera, it is pliable limestone. In China’s Shanxi province, the cave houses are built from loess, fine particles of soil.

Opal City

In Coober Pedy an Australian opal mining town, the residents went underground to escape the dust storms and searing summer heat (47°C). They cut into the sandstone mounds to make their dugouts. After tunnelling out the rooms, lacquer was applied to the walls and concrete floor  laid. All modern dugouts have wall-to-wall carpeting, furnishings running water and electricity

Underground, the temperature remains constant all year round at 24°C (controlled by air ventilation shafts). Except for the dim light, the faint echoes and the mild smell of salt from the earth, life is not much different from that above ground. The only drawback is the dust!

Mole people

Of course, in all these places, living underground is tolerable not only because electricity and water are available, but also because the inhabitants know they can come to the surface if they crave sunshine and fresh air Would humans adapt so well if they had to live entirely under the earth 24/7? The lack of sunlight is the biggest concern in living underground Sunlight is necessary for growing food crops and stimulating the production of Vitamin D in the human body Vitamin D is essential to maintain bone health.

Another danger is Seasonal Affective Disorder or SAD which affects people in winter when the days are long and dark

When isolated in caves without light humans have been observed to sleep for 48 hours at a stretch! Artificial lights to regulate Circadian rhythms would be needed

Most humans have a natural fear of being buried alive in confined underground spaces. So going underground is physically possible and an ecologically sound idea, but it may cause psychological stress.

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Pioneer species include lichens mosses, fungi, and microorganisms such as bacteria. They reproduce and grow very fast establishing themselves before other competitors arrive. They are instrumental in building an initial biological community which will gradually enable other species to thrive.

Picture this. A newly created barren ecosystem or a barren disturbed environment. Not many organions can grow in these harsh, sterile environments. But a pioneer species can and hence the name. They are the pioneer or harbingers of life

The first species to colonise a newly created environment or recently disturbed environment is called a pioneer species.

These important species are the first to colonise barnos ecosystems. They are hardy and help in the recovery of an environment or ecosystem if it has been disturbed by cos such as deforestation or wildfires. They make the environment more hospitable for later species to thrive like helping enrich the ecosystem with nutrients

As they are the first to arrive they need to survive the harsh, barren ecosystem. As such, they are mostly photosynthetic can withstand harsh environments, mature early, or may even be capable of producing and dispersing a large volume of seeds. The seeds may be capable of surviving long periods of dormancy Pioneer species have many similar adaptations that help them colonise hostile environments.

They may be capable of germinating growing and reproducing quickly and also create a large range of offspring. For this, they might depend on asexual modes of reproduction or wind-dispersed pollen and seeds

Pioneer species include lichens, mosses, fungi and microorganisms such as bacteria. They reproduce and grow very fast, establishing themselves before other competitors arrive.

They are also instrumental in building the initial biological community. As time passes by, new entrants such as plants, animals and other organisms will arrive and outcompete them, changing the dynamics and structure of the biological community.

They are versatile and play an important role in ecosystem recovery and growth. They prepare the disturbed ecosystem or new ecosystem for complex communities.

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Even the ancient Romans liked their pizza Archaeologists in Pompeii said Tuesday they had found depicted on an ancient fresco the precursor to the modern-day pizza-but without the cheese and tomatoes.

The 2,000-year-old painting- discovered in the middle of a half-crumbled wall during recent digs at the sprawling archaeological site – depicts a silver platter holding a round flatbread, alongside fresh and dried fruits such as pomegranates and dates and a goblet filled with red wine.

What was depicted on the wall of an ancient Pompeian house could be a distant ancestor of the modern dish,” said experts at the archaeological park in a statement.

Pompeii’s director, Gabriel Zuchtriegel, said the newly uncovered fresco shows the contrast between “a frugal and simple meal, which refers to a sphere between the bucolic and the sacred… and the luxury of silver trays and the refinement of artistic and literary representations.”

How can we fail to think, in this regard, of pizza, also born as a ‘poor dish in southern Italy, which has now conquered the world and is also served in starred restaurants,” Zuchtriegel added. AFP

POMPEII’S PAST

A devastating volcanic eruption of Mount Vesuvius in AD 79 buried the Roman city in thick ash, hiding from view its many treasures that archaeologists continue to slowly bring to light.
Archaeologists estimate that 15 to 20 percent of Pompeii’s population died in the eruption, mostly from thermal shock as a giant cloud of gases and ash covered the city.

WHAT THE EXCAVATION REVEALS…

The fresco is believed to refer to the “hospitable gifts” offered to guests, following a Greek tradition dating to the 3rd to 1st centuries BC and described by imperial Roman-era writers including Virgil and Philostratus.
It reveals an atrium of a house that included an annex with a bakery.
In the working areas near the oven, the skeletons of three victims have been found in the past weeks.

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Wildfires are a natural phenomenon that have both advantages and disadvantages. Globally, they have played a crucial part in our ecosystems they wipe out creatures unfit for survival and help in the growth of resilient ones, they allow for the clearing of dead plants and ensure new plants grow instead, help a species move into a new territory and establish a population there, and so on. On the other hand, they can help invasive species flourish, push threatened species to the brink of extinction, cause irreversible damage to ecosystems, etc. And, over the last few years, it appears that across the world, the perils of wildfires have far outweighed the benefits they offer.

The Australian wildfire of 2019-2020 was in the news for the unprecendented destruction it left in its wake. It killed or displaced nearly three billion animals, making it one of the worst wildlife disasters in modern history. And now Canadian wildfires too are a cause for alarm. This wildfire season – the worst in Canada’s recorded history-has destroyed millions of acres in the region, turning the focus on the nearly 700 species at risk. Some of these are even more at risk. How so? The habitats of a few species are already small. For instance, the half-moon hairstreak butterfly. Found in just a few small patches in Canada, these butterflies lost a part of their population and habitat to a lightning strike in 2017. Scientists are worried that such species could be lost completely if their habitats are destroyed in wildfires. Another species of concern is the burrowing owl that nests in prairie grasslands – affected by wildfires. Captive breeding programmes are being considered for both these species in peril. Further, the fire season has “overlapped with the breeding season for many species, presenting a clear danger to newborns”. While adults and healthy individuals can move fast and find ways to escape, the same cannot be said of young ones. In addition, smoke from the wildfires travel far, with potential to harm many species, including migrating birds.

As mentioned earlier, wildfires have occurred naturally. But today, human-induced climate change and global warming have given way to changed rainfall cycles and drier conditions. This has pushed up the intensity and instances of wildfires. As a result, forests that once withstood wildfires are no longer able to do so, and this could eliminate or negatively alter ecosystems.

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India’s aspirations in the outer space and acceptance of the Artemis Accords have affirmed the country’s interest in building a greater relationship with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and its partners. As the space community lauds India’s acceptance of the Artemis Accords, let us know more about it.

Artemis Accords

The Artemis Accords are part of the Artemis programme, which is a mega-initiative by NASA with the aim to land the first woman and first person of colour on the Moon, make new scientific discoveries, and explore more of the lunar surface. Artemis is the name of the goddess of the Moon in Greek mythology and also the twin sister of Apollo.

The Artemis Accords were established in 2020 by NASA, the U.S., and seven other founding member nations – Australia, Canada, Italy, Japan, Luxembourg, UAE, and the U.K. This June 21, India became the 27th country to sign the Artemis Accords.

The Artemis Accords are a set of non-binding guidelines designed to guide civil space exploration and use in the 21st Century. It is a NASA-led effort to return humans to the moon by 2025, with the ultimate goal of expanding space exploration to Mars and beyond.

The Artemis Accords reinforce and implement key obligations in the 1967 Outer Space Treaty (which provided the basic framework for international space law). The accords also affirm the importance of the Rescue and Return Agreement opened in 1968, which emphasises the responsibility of nations to safely return astronauts and equipment to Earth.

Besides, the accords emphasise the need to preserve historically significant human or robotics landing sites, artefacts, spacecraft, and other evidence of activity on celestial bodies.

Outer Space Treaty

The Outer Space Treaty is an international treaty binding the parties to use outer space only for peaceful purposes. The treaty was enforced on October 10, 1967, after being ratified by the U.S., then Soviet Union, the U.K.. and several other countries.

The treaty prohibits countries from placing nuclear arms or other weapons of mass destruction in orbit, on the Moon, or on other bodies in space. Also, no country can claim sovereignty over the Moon or other celestial bodies. The countries are liable for any damage caused by objects launched into space from their territory.

India and the Artemis Accords

India’s Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) and NASA had been working together in several lunar missions. However, the cooperation was limited to sharing knowledge. With the signing of the Accords, India and the US will share data, technology, and resources, and work together in ensuring the safety and sustainability of exploring the Moon.

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A flash drought is an extreme dry spell. Of late, it is becoming a big concern for farmers and water utilities in some countires, Flash droughts start and intensify quickly, over periods of weeks to months, compared to years or decades for conventional droughts. Still, they can cause substantial economic damage, since communities have less time to prepare for the impacts of a rapidly evolving drought.

Flash droughts also can increase wildfire risks, cause public water supply shortages and reduce stream flow, which harms fish and other aquatic life.

What causes them?

Flash droughts typically result from a combination of lower-than-normal precipitation and higher temperatures. Together, these factors reduce overall land surface moisture. Reduced moisture at the surface increases surface air temperatures, drying out the soil. Even moist regions can have flash droughts. In 2017, a flash drought in Montana and the Dakotas damaged crops and grasses that served as forage for cattle, causing U.S. $2.6 billion in agricultural losses.

Difficult to predict

Predicting flash drought events that occur on monthly to weekly time scales is much harder with current data and tools, largely due to the chaotic nature of weather and limitations in weather models. That’s why weather forecasters don’t typically make projections beyond 10 days there is a lot of variation in what can happen over longer time spans. And climate patterns can shift from year to year, adding to the challenge.

Early warnings

New monitoring tools that measure evaporative demand can, however, provide early warnings for regions experiencing abnormal conditions. Information from these systems can give farmers and utilities sufficient lead time to adjust their operations and minimise their risks.

The U.S. story

Flash droughts started receiving more attention in the U.S. after notable events in 2012, 2016 and 2017 that reduced crop yields and increased wildfire risks. In 2012, areas in the Midwest fell into severe drought conditions in June and July, causing more than $30 billion in damages. New England, typically one of the wetter U.S. regions too experienced a flash drought in the summer of 2022.

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On July 9, 1979, Voyager 2 made its closest approach to the largest planet in our solar system. Now in interstellar space. Voyager 2 altered some of our ideas about the Jovian system.

The Voyager probes are: humanity’s longest running spacecraft as they have been flying since 1977 Both Voyager 2 and Voyager 1 are now in interstellar space, and though their power sources are gradually fading, they are still operational as of now.

It might seem counter-intuitive, but Voyager 2 was the first to be launched on August 20, 1977-about two weeks before the launch of Voyager 1. Both spacecraft were equipped with an extensive array of instruments to gather data. about the outer planets and their systems, in addition to carrying a slow-scan colour TV camera capable of taking images of the planets and their moons.

Based on Mariners

The design of the Voyagers was based on the Mariners and they were even known as Mariner 11 and Mariner 12 until March 7. 1977. It was NASA administrator James Fletcher who announced that the spacecraft would be renamed Younger. The Voyagers are powered by three plutonium dioxide radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTGS) mounted at the end of a boom (a long metal beam extending from the spacecraft and serving as a structure subsystem).

Even though Voyager 1 was launched a little later, it reached Jupiter first in 1979 as it took a trajectory that put it on a faster path. Voyager 2 began transmitting images of Jupiter from April 24, 1979 for time-lapse movies of atmospheric circulation. For the next three-and-a-half months, until August 5 of that year, the probe continued to click images and collect data. A total of 17,000 images of Jupiter and its system were sent back to the Earth.

The spectacular images of the Jovian system included those of its moons Callisto, Europa, and Ganymede. While Voyager 2 flew by Callisto and Europa at about half the distance between the Earth and its moon, it made an even closer approach to Ganymede.

Ocean worlds

The combined cameras of the two Voyager probes, in fact. covered at least four-fifths of the surfaces of Ganymede and Callisto. This enabled the mapping out of these moons to a resolution of about 5 km.

Voyager 2’s work, along with observations made before and after, also helped scientists reveal that each of these moons were indeed an ocean world.

On July 9, 1979, the probe made its closest approach to Jupiter. Voyager 2 came within 6,45,000 km from the planet’s surface, less than twice the distance between Earth and its moon. It detected many significant atmospheric changes, including a drift in the Great Red Spot in addition to changes in its shape and colours.

Voyager 2 also relayed photographs of other moons like lo and Amalthea. It even discovered a Jovian satellite, later called Adrastea, and revealed a third component to the planet’s rings. The thin rings surrounding Jupiter, as had been seen by Voyager 1 as well, were confirmed by images looking back at the giant planet as the spacecraft departed for Saturn. As the probe used the gravity assist technique, Jupiter served as a springboard for Voyager 2 to get to Saturn.

Studies all four giant planets

 Four decades after its closest approach to Jupiter, Voyager 2 successfully fired up its trajectory correction manoeuvre thrusters on July 8, 2019. These thrusters, which had themselves last been used only in November 1989 during Voyager 2’s encounter with Neptune, will be used to control the pointing of the spacecraft in interstellar space.

In those 40 years, Voyager 2 had achieved flybys of Saturn (1981), Uranus (1986), and Neptune (1989), thereby becoming the only spacecraft to study all four giant planets of the solar system at close range. Having entered interstellar space on December 10, 2018, Voyager 2 is now over 132 AU (astronomical unit-distance between Earth and the sun) away from the Earth, still relaying back data from unexplored regions deep in space.

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Sediment deposited at Crawford Lake in Ontario, Canada, provides solid evidence that Earth entered a new human-driven geological chapter-the Anthropocene epoch- some seven decades ago, a team of scientists said recently. The members of the Anthropocene Working Group plan to submit the evidence to the international scientific body responsible for naming geological chapters in Earth’s history. The scientists conducted research at a dozen sites worldwide and cited Crawford Lake as the location that provided particularly persuasive geological markers that the Anthropocene epoch- essentially the age of humans – had arrived in the 1950s.

ANTHROPOCENE – – ETYMOLOGY

The word Anthropocene is derived from the Greek words “anthropo” for “man” and “cene” for “new”.

The idea of the Anthropocene was proposed at a science conference more than 20 years ago by the late Nobel Prize-winning chemist Paul Crutzen.

Teams of scientists have debated the issue since then and finally set up the working group to study whether it was needed and, if so, when the epoch would start and where it would be commemorated.

THE LAKE IN CANADA AND THE FINDINGS

From climate change to species loss and pollution, humans have etched their impact on Earth with such strength and permanence since the middle of the 20th century that a special team of scientists says a new geologic epoch began then. Called the Anthropocene, this epoch started sometime between 1950 and 1954, according to the scientists.

While there is evidence worldwide that captures the impact of burning fossil fuels, detonating nuclear weapons and dumping fertilizers and plastics on land and in waterways, the scientists are proposing a small but deep lake outside of Toronto, Canada – Crawford Lake to place a historic marker. “It’s quite clear that the scale of change has intensified unbelievably and that has to be human impact,” said University of Leicester geologist Colin Waters, who chaired the Anthropocene Working Group.

The  scientists aims to determine a specific start date of the Anthropocene by measuring plutonium levels at the bottom of Crawford Lake. The lake which is 79 ft deep and 258,333 sq ft in area was chosen over 11 other sites because the annual effects of human activity on the earth’s soil, atmosphere and biology are so clearly preserved in its layers of sediment. That includes everything from nuclear fallout to species-threatening pollution to steadily rising temperatures. There are distinct and multiple signals starting around 1950 in Crawford Lake – showing that “the effects of humans overwhelm the Earth system,” said Francine McCarthy, a committee member who specialises in that site as an Earth sciences professor at Brock University in Canada.

‘The remarkably preserved annual record of deposition in Crawford Lake is truly amazing,” said U.S. National Academies of Sciences President Marcia McNutt, who wasn’t part of the – committee. “If you know your Greek tragedies you know power, hubris, and tragedy go hand in hand,” said Harvard science historian Naomi Oreskes, a working group member. “If we don’t address the harmful aspects of human activities, most obviously disruptive climate change, we are headed for tragedy.”

DID YOU KNOW?

Geologists measure time in eons, eras, periods, epochs and ages.

The scientific working group is proposing that Anthropocene epoch followed the Holocene Epoch, which started about 11,700 years ago at the end of the Ice Age.

They are also proposing that it starts a new age, called Crawfordian after the lake chosen as its starting point.

* The reason geologists didn’t declare the Anthropocene the start of a bigger and more important time measurement, such as a period, is because the current Quaternary Period, which began nearly 2.6 million years ago, is based on permanent ice on Earth’s poles, which still exist. But in a few hundred years, if climate change continues and those disappear, it may be time to change that. AGENCIES

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